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During that time, many consumers were looking to outfit home offices during pandemic-related workplace closures and increased their use of e-commerce channels. The remainder of this chapter examines the impacts of shipping disruptions described above on shipping costs, the cost of goods, and the main transportation modes and shipping routes used by shippers.

It also discusses the types of products most affected by delays and the impact of these shipping disruptions on small importers. This section examines the overall impact as well as the effects by sector. However, individual firms and industries have had widely varying experiences, with some experiencing only minor effects and others much more significant impacts than the aggregate data show. The main purpose of this section is to provide information on trends in , which as appropriate is placed within a five-year context to show the extent to which these trends deviated from historical norms.

This chapter does not quantitatively assess the extent to which shipping disruptions decreased the volume of imports from levels that would have otherwise occurred. Given the unique circumstances of , such an assessment would need to take into account a range of factors.

For example, it would need to consider not only the price of freight services, but also the availability of freight and the inelasticity of demand—such as for PPE—during the COVID pandemic. The COVID pandemic resulted in a significant increase in maritime freight costs from Northeast Asia starting in the second half of Air freight rates also increased sharply due to the contraction in air freight capacity during the pandemic. According to data from the U. In addition to data from Freightos and BLS, changes in transportation costs can also be examined using insurance and freight costs as reported by the U.

Census Bureau. Insurance and freight costs per kilogram kg of U. Census Bureau regardless of transportation mode briefly fell in February , then increased over the year figure ST.

Increases in transportation costs as measured by per kilogram international insurance and freight costs were more modest than the maritime and airfreight price increases as reported by Freightos and BLS. Many goods are shipped at previously arranged contract prices and a significant portion of maritime imports use bulk shipping contract prices and bulk shipping are not captured in the above Freightos data, and air transportation, which is shown in the BLS data, represents only a small share of freight.

Goods sold pursuant to previously arranged contracts may be less impacted by changes in transportation costs, and transportation costs for bulk shipments do not appear to have significantly increased until However, some firms that needed to pay the spot prices may have incurred much larger cost increases than shown in figure ST.

Notes: The data in this chart are based on import charges for all transport modes from Northeast Asia from DataWeb and the volume of imports in kilograms by air and vessel from official statistics in Global Trade Atlas. As import charges are not available by transport mode for these data and therefore report import charges for modes of transport other than air and vessel, these data may slightly overstate the costs of imports.

However, only 6 percent of annual imports by value from Northeast Asia during —20 did not enter via air or vessel. The three sectors that experienced the largest increase in insurance and freight costs from Northeast Asia, in dollars per kg, were textiles and apparel up 25 percent from , minerals and metals up 16 percent , and chemicals and related products up 13 percent.

As a result, the increase in shipping costs for textiles and apparel was largest in the first half of the year, though increased shipping costs also continued in the second half of the year figure ST. For other products, however, the increase in shipping costs was concentrated in the second half of the year, [63] with chemicals and related products 23 percent and minerals and metals 22 percent experiencing the largest second half cost increases.

Shipping costs represent only a small share of the value of imports, and the increase in the share of import value accounted for by shipping costs was relatively small.

The largest increase in insurance and freight costs, as a share of the landed duty-paid value of imports, was in energy-related products. Insurance and freight costs for energy-related products from Northeast Asia increased from 4.

The shipping challenges and increased costs resulting from the COVID pandemic did not result in a major change in the shipping mode used for imports from Northeast Asia in , except in the textile and apparel sector. In textiles and apparel, the share of goods shipped by air freight increased from 9 percent in to 22 percent in , reflecting the large volume of PPE shipped via air freight figure ST.

There were no significant changes in shipping routes corresponding to the major ports of entry for container cargo from Northeast Asia in despite the shipping congestion that occurred that year. Los Angeles continued to be the major port of entry in , receiving 36 percent of the volume by kg of container imports in up from 35 percent in , followed by Newark part of the Port of New York and New Jersey 11 percent, the same as in , Long Beach 11 percent, up from 9 percent in , and Savannah 10 percent, the same as in When congestion intensified during the course of the year, importers increased their reliance on Southern California ports.

The combined share of container imports received by Los Angeles and Long Beach—two of the most congested ports—in December was higher than in December While total volume of goods handled at ports in was similar to the volume in , the year-on-year comparison obscures the V-shaped pattern a sharp decrease followed by a sharp increase in monthly changes in During the year, monthly volumes declined during the first half of the year and increased during the second half.

The number of containers handled increased 34 percent over the next four months, from 3. The disruptions to the maritime shipping sector resulted in delayed merchandise shipments. The shipping disruptions significantly affected the ability of firms to supply the U. For example, the footwear and textiles and apparel sectors are heavily dependent on container imports through the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach.

The result was a lack of available supply, delayed shipments to wholesale partners and lower-than-expected quarterly revenue growth. The shipping disruptions and cost increases in the second half of likely had a disproportionate impact on small importers, according to industry representatives, although firms of all sizes were affected, as discussed in the Nike and Gap examples above. First, industry representatives indicate that shipping companies may prioritize freight for large customers that do a lot of business with their firms.

Finally, large companies may be able to negotiate discounts due to the large volumes that they ship. By mid, most maritime shipping capacity returned to levels. But port capacity, including container availability, continues to be strained and international air freight capacity has not yet returned to its pre-pandemic levels.

Global merchandise trade continued to grow through the first quarter of , as did U. For instance, the amount of time container ships spent waiting to be unloaded in mid, particularly on the U. West Coast, was well above the pre-pandemic average. However, the section on container shipping briefly discusses its effects on U.

Trade Shifts reports usually examine trends in trade on an annual basis. However, given the significant changes in logistics during the course of , this part of the report will break out certain trade data for half or a quarter of the year.

In the second half of , the volume of U. In December , China supplied nearly 60 percent of U. International Trade in Services, March 23, Shipping contracts dictate whether any penalties are assessed for canceling a sailing or a container slot on a vessel.

Overall, industry reports indicate that the alliances canceled about 15 to 30 percent of scheduled sailings on major maritime routes. Estimates of the number of blank sailings during the first six months of vary between and 1, The increase pertains to the volume of U. Shipping rates per container also tend to be higher on routes from Asia to North America than on routes from North America to Asia. Lessors were estimated to own over half the container fleet in Direct ownership of containers is less expensive for firms, but leasing containers offers more flexibility.

Production of shipping containers, concentrated in China, has been increasing but a decline in container orders for several years prior to COVID had reduced manufacturing capacity. Travel restrictions in these countries and flight cancellations also played a role in stranding seafarers. Passenger aircraft carrying cargo in the main cabin also require formal authorization from a national aviation authority such as the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States.

At the same time, the share of electronic products shipped via air freight increased from to Other factors that played a role in electronic trade shifts include supply chain disruptions, particularly in early , and changes in consumer demand due to higher unemployment resulting from COVID Census Bureau are based on import charges data reported in official trade statistics.

According to the U. For example, certain goods—such as certain cooking appliances included in minerals and metals—experienced increases in shipping costs likely due to the rise in container rates. For others—such as laboratory ware used in the COVID response a subset of chemicals and related products —a large share of the cost increase was likely due to the urgent need to bring products in via air freight.

Increases in shipping costs by sector are also driven by changes in product mixes. For example, one of the products driving the large increase in shipping costs in chemicals and related products was a change in the product mix to more vinyl tile.

As discussed in the chemicals and related products section in Part II, this represented a surge in demand for vinyl tile, which has above-average transportation costs, rather than a large increase in shipping costs which only rose by 2 percent for vinyl tile.

Finally, while there were significant increases in shipping costs in these sectors on average, some digests show a decline in shipping costs. Some firms indicated that they passed along cost increases, while others said that they did not do so. In , however, it appears that some of these costs are being passed on to customers. In , U. See also the discussion in the footwear section in Part II. Arcieri, Katie. Barbella, Michael. Berger, Paul. Bradsher, Keith, and Niraj Chokshi.

See U. Bushey, Claire. Caminiti, Susan. Chambers, Sam. Chaney Cambon, Sarah. Chokshi, Niraj. CPC Consultants. Dupin, Chris. In addition to beginning the railroad, the AEC was forced to take on many of the responsibilities of a local government, building roads, water and sewer lines, and providing electrical power and telephone service. This was a distance of miles through wilderness and difficult terrain. Mears was also charged with building a mile spur line to the coal fields at Matanuska.

Mears was promoted to the rank of captain in the U. World War I had begun in August ; when the U. Mears left the project to serve with the Army in France. As the commanding officer of the 31st Railway Engineers, Mears was promoted to major and then colonel. The 31st Railway Engineers regiment was one of nine regiments sent to operate the military railroads in France. After once again demonstrating his administrative competence, Mears was promoted to general manager of the U. Army Transportation Corps, a position he held until May In recognition of his services, Mears received the U.

In the spring of , Secretary of the Interior Lane requested that Mears be released from his military duties in France to return to Alaska to lead the remaining construction of the Alaska Railroad.

However, work had continued. Another change was that the other two commissioners had left the AEC. William C. Edes, the former chairman, had retired, while Thomas Riggs had become governor of the Alaska Territory. After his return, Mears planned and oversaw construction of four major bridges: over the Susitna River; over the Tanana River; over Riley Creek; and over Hurricane Gulch.

The four bridges and other work were completed by the end of The last major project was the upgrade of the Tanana Valley Railroad from a narrow gauge railroad to one of standard gauge, which was completed in In the summer of , President Warren G. Harding traveled to Alaska to drive the last spike and officially open the Alaska Railroad.

However, Frederick Mears was not present to see the ceremony. James Steese, chairman of the Road Commission, had some experience with railroads; but Mears had no road-building experience. Fall was later implicated in the Teapot Dome scandal, which rocked the Harding administration. Fall became the first American to be convicted of a felony committed while holding a Cabinet post.

On February 13, , the U. Army ordered Mears to Seattle; he and his family left Alaska. Mears never returned, and never rode the railroad whose construction he was responsible for. Before Mears left Alaska, the residents of Anchorage honored him at a banquet.

They gave him a solid gold railway spike as a remembrance. However, Mears lent the spike to the new governor of Alaska, Scott C. Bone who had been appointed to the position by President Harding. Bone and President Harding used the golden spike during the ceremony opening the railroad.

Mears resigned from the U. Army shortly after arriving in Seattle. He rejoined the Great Northern Railway, his employer in the late s.

His longtime associate and mentor, Ralph Budd, was now president of the railroad, as well as the St. Paul Depot Company. Mears first major project for the railroad was to supervise the construction of the Union Depot in St.

Paul, Minnesota. He designed and oversaw the construction of the 7. Mears remained as chief engineer of the Great Northern Railway until his death on January 11, He was 60 years old when he died and had suffered from bouts of pneumonia that he had contracted in Alaska decades earlier. Army service; oversaw the construction of the Panama Railway; ran the French railroads for the U.

Army during and after World War I; and founded what is now the largest city in Alaska. However, Col. Frederick Mears is best remembered for building the mile-long Alaska Railroad, which he began in and completed in As the chief engineer and member of the Alaska Engineering Commission and later its chairman , he was the man most responsible for the construction of the Alaska Railroad.

The Alaska Railroad dedicated the bridge in his memory on August 22, , some 51 years after his golden spike was used at that spot to signify the completion of the Alaska Railroad in The Frederick C. Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Share on. Frederick Mears. Photo: Pritzker Military Museum and Library. President Woodrow Wilson. Photo: Library of Congress. Anchorage in Photo: akonthego. Construction on the Alaska Railroad.

Frederick Mears in

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